UNIT 1 THE ENLIGHTENMENT

 THE ENLIGHTENMENT: IDEAS FOR CHANGE

 The Enlightenment was an important intellectual movement that emerged in Europe during the 18th century. Enlightenment thinkers criticised the traditions of the Ancient R gime and suggested new é ideas to change and reform society. They believed, for example, that all people should have the same legal rights and freedoms. Enlightenment thinkers wanted to “enlighten” society by using reason, science and education. Their ideas were spread through newspapers, periodicals and books, such as the Enciclopedia. They were also taught and discussed in schools and special academies. Enlightenment thinkers wanted to make substancial changes in various areas of society. In relation to politics, they proposed measures to limit the powers of absolute monarchs.

 • MONTESQUIEU argued for the separation of powers. This meant that the three branches of government (the legislative, executive and judicial branches) should be separate from one another. 

• VOLTAIRE favoured a strong monarchy, but he also supported the existence of a parliament. 

• ROUSSEAU introduced the idea of popular sovereignty. He wrote in “The Social Contract”, that a goverment can only obtain authority (a “contract”) over the people if the people themselves consent to that authority. God does not decide who is in power, but us. 

In relation to economy, a group of thinkers called the Physiocrats argued that agriculture was the true source of wealth. They also believed that the state should not interfere with trade and other economic activities. In relation to society, Enlightenment thinkers criticised the social inequality of the estates system and argued that no group should have special privileges under the law.

UNIT 1 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION

 The American Revolution.

Causes:

1.- Ideological.: The Enlightment ideas had spread in the  colonies. They demanded liberty and equality.

2.- The political situation. Great Britain increased the taxes that the citizens of the colonies had to pay. Since the colonies didn’t have members in the British Parliament they refused to accept a group of acts  ( laws) that hadn’t been voted by their representatives.

3.- Economic: The rich land-owners in the colonies wanted the control over economy and commerce.

The beginning of the war.

The war started when the British Government increased taxes for the colonies. One of the most important episodes took place in Boston in 1773. Several American people disguised as Indians dropped the tea stored in the ships in Boston harbor.

This action was a protest for the increasing taxes in day-life goods, such as tea.

The American colonists began to arm themselves and the war finally broke out in 1775.

          The Colonists were supported by France and Spain, those nations thought that the revolution could weak the power of Great Britain.

        The colonists proclaimed the Declaration of Independence on 4^th July 1776. Great Britain Recognized the independence of the USA in 1783, after the military defeat in Yorktown.

              The US Constitution ( The first in History) was  written in 1787. It established a Federal Republic with some of the ideas of Enlightenment:

              .- Popular sovereignty. ( limited to male citizens)

              .- Separation of powers.

 Its first president was George Washington, a rich land-owner who had acted as the general of the revolutionary troops.

              The American Revolution had an important impact in Europe, reinforcing the feelings against absolute monarchy.

 George Washington.

George Washington was born in Westmoreland County, Virginia, in 1732. During The American War of Independence, he was the Commander-in-Chief of the rebels forces that fought the British.

After the war had ended, Washington presided over the 1787 Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, where the Constitution of the United States was written.

In 1787, Washington was elected as the first President of the United States. During his time in office, he supported the Bill of Rights, which guaranteed the basic rights of all the citizens. He was president until 1797, and died two years later in Mount Vernon, his home in Virginia.

UNIT 2 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.

 1.- CAUSES. 

1St.- Economic crisis. Due to poor harvest the price of wheat increases. Only the rich people can buy food. Moreover, the French state was bankrupt as a result of: .- Its participation in wars ( Included the American Revolution). .- The money spend by monarchy. ( Extravagant way of life). A possible solution was a change in taxes, asking the nobility to pay. But the king was afraid about losing the support from the privileged estates. 

2Nd.- Ideological. The ideas of the Enlightenment. French intellectuals and the bourgeoisie tried to put Enlightenment ideas into practice. 3Rd.- Politic causes. Louis XVI continued with the idea of an absolute monarchy, unable to introduce in the system the changes demanded by the third estate. 4Th.- Social Crisis: All the states were upset: .- Nobility and clergy wanted to continue with their privileges. .- The rich and educated members of the third estate wanted access to political power. .- The poorer members of the third estate hardly could get enough money to pay for their food ( poor harvest) and pay the taxes.

 2.- THE BEGINNIG OF THE REVOLUTION Louis XVI needed desperately money, so he decided to force the nobility to pay taxes. The noble people refused to pay and they ask the king to gather the General Estates . ( That was the legal way to create new taxes). In the General Estates every estate had one vote. The members of the third estate, which was the most numerous, claimed for an individual vote. That would have given them the victory. The idea supporting this position was the Popular Sovereignty. The king and the nobility refused, so the members of the third estate left the meeting and moved to a tennis court. There, they established themselves as National Assembly with the aim of giving a Constitution to France. (20th June) The Oath in the Tennis Court. 

3.- THE END FOR THE ANCIENT REGIME. The population joined the members of the third estate. They were afraid about the possibility of the royal army suffocating the revolt, so they assaulted the Bastille, the royal prison, getting weapons to defend the revolution. The revolution spread to the country, and the 4th of August the Assembly approved the Declaration of Righ

UNIT 5 WHAT CAUSED FIRST WORLD WAR?

 https://youtu.be/24i4ncHuf6A?si=SiPzQc1Unf3BZrrW

UNIT 5 FIRST WORLD WAR

 https://elpais.com/especiales/2014/primera-guerra-mundial/historia-de-un-conflicto/

UNIT 5 WWI

 WWI 

 The First World War took place between 1914 and 1918. Its causes can be found from the end of the 19th century. For this reason this war is considered by some authors as an “announced war”. 

 5.1.- COLONIALISM AND NATIONALISM. Some of the causes.... 

 a.- The antagonism between colonial powers: One of the most important crisis took place in Morocco. Germany was the last power that started its colonial expansion, so Germany wanted to gain influence in this area by facing France and Great Britain. In the end, the war didn't explode, but the tension remained. 

 b.- Nationalism. France and Germany had fought a war in 1871. ( This war, won by Prussia, signals the beginning of Germany as a nation) During this war France lost two regions: Alsace and Lorena. Moreover the two powers wanted the leading role in European politics. Germany also faced Great Britain in order to achieve the control over the international trade and the oceanic routes used by this trade.

 c.- The situation in the Balkans. This area had been a hot spot since the 19th century. Different nationalities had achieved their independence from the Ottoman Empire: Greece, Serbia, Romania.... On the other hand we find the Austrian Empire, a group of different nations ruled by a Germanic minority. The Austrian Empire wanted to take control over the area but faced a problem with Serbia. This country supported the claims of the Serbian citizens who lived in the Austrian Empire. Too make things more complicated Russia supported Serbia. Two reasons for this: 1st.- Serbia was a Slavic country and Russia wanted to spread its influence among the Slavic nationalities. 2nd.- And more important. Russia needed desperately an exit for its fleet from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. This exit had to be the Dardanelles Strait. 

 5.2.- THE “WEAPONS RACE”. The hot situation made the powers spend an enormous amount of money on reinforcing their armies. This situation was known as the “ weapons race” or also the Armed Peace. At the same time all the important countries tried to consolidate alliances that would give them the needed support in case of war. In 1882 Germany, Austria and Italy signed the Triple Alliance ; on the other hand France, afraid of the German might signed an agreement with Russia and Great Britain: The Triple Entente.(1907) 

 5.3.- The War begins. On 28th of July 1914 the heir of the Austrian Empire Franz Ferdinand was assassinated in Sarajevo ( Bosnia). The assassination was committed by a Bosnian student related with the Serbian nationalists. Austria put the blame on Serbia and declared the war against this Balkan nation. Russia moved to defend Serbia and, after that, Germany ( Allied of Austria) declared war to Russia and France. In a few weeks all the powers were at war. Great Britain was the last power to join the war. The British government declared the war to Germany only after the German troops invaded Belgium ( A country allied with Great Britain). 

 6.- THE GREAT WAR. The First World War was known as “ The Great War”. The world had never seen such destruction and pain. 

 6.1.- Movements Phase. Germany attacked France following the Schlieffen Plan. The idea was attack France first, then, after the French defeat the German army would be able to focus on the war in the Eastern front against Russia. At the beginning the tactics worked, and in September 1914 the Germans were almost in Paris. But the French and British army could stop the German advance in the battle of the Marne. In the East the Germans also started well, but the Russian army counterattacked and reached the borders with the Austrian Empire. 

 6.2.- Trench warfare. When the armies lost their momentum the fronts got stopped. In the western front the trenches moved from Switzerland to the North Sea. Thousands of lives were needed only to conquer a few meters. The powers looked for new allies in order to unbalance the situation. In 1915 Italy joined France and Great Britain. Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire supported Germany and Austria.. In 1916 Germany launched an offensive in Verdun. The objective was breaking the French front, but the French troops resisted. The battle cost 1.8 million lives. 

 6.3.- 1917 a decisive year. In 1917 the Revolution triumphed in Russia. The new communist government wanted to focus on the internal problems of the country, so they signed the Brest-Litovskk peace with Germany. That was good news for Germany, now they could fight only in one front (the western front). But the situation was balanced with the intervention of the USA. In 1918 In the eastern front the allies defeated the Austrian Empire. Austria and the Ottoman Empire asked for peace. The war was over for them. A few months later the situation for Germany was worse every day, there were revolts among the troops and the industrial workers took the streets during several demonstrations. In this moment the Kaiser Wilhem II was afraid of a revolution in Germany similar to the one that had eliminated the Czar in Russia. The High Command suggested the Kaiser to ask for the peace. On 11th November 1918 the Armistice was signed The Kaiser escaped and Germany became a republic. Its Constitution was signed in Weimar so the republic was called the Republic of Weimar. The war was over

UNIT 6 INTERWAR PERIOD

 STALIN’S USSR

Civil War. After the Revolution in October a Civil War exploded in Russia. The rich land owners created the White Army that fought against the Red Army created by the Bolsheviks. This red army, directed by Leon Trotsky, finally won the war. However, the situation in Russia was catastrophic, the economy was collapsed and hunger had killed 5 million people. During the war the Bolsheviks had assumed the name: Communist Party of the Soviet Union. This Communist party had all the powers in Russia, all the other parties were forbidden. In 1922 the Soviet Union was created as a federation of republics. The Supreme Soviet was the Parliament and the Communist party controlled the political life. This kind of government has been called Totalitarism. The State and the Party were the same thing. The parliament was not elected. Marx’s ideas about the dictatorship of the proletariat were the ideological support for the structure of this state. In theory this dictatorship was a provisional moment in the way towards Communism.

 Internal fights. When Lenin died in 1924 their followers were trying to decide what the Party should do. Trotsky thought that the best idea was trying to export the revolution to other countries, helping the workers around the world to start their own revolutions. On the other hand Stalin wanted to continue with Socialism only in one country: the Soviet Union. The USSR had to become a power, and, after that it would boost revolutions in other countries. Stalin won the internal discussion and became the strong man in the Soviet Union in 1927. Trotsky had to escape out of Russia. 

Stalinism. Stalin’s idea of the Soviet Union becoming a great industrial power started with the collectivization of the economy. The measures included: .- The private property was forbidden. All the factories and lands became a property of the state. .- They prioritized the heavy industry. The idea was that the heavy industries were the first step to built a mighty nation, after achieving this the light industry could be developed. .- The State controlled the economy establishing what had to be produced. For this they used the “ five year plans”. This ideas worked (at the beginning) and the industry in the USSR got bigger. There were, however, problems: The light industry was not developed and as a result of this the population could not get the goods they needed. Another problem was agriculture, since the government focused on industry the land remained behind. Stalin started a real dictatorship characterized by the cult given to Stalin himself . All the possible dissidents were accused of being “enemies of the Socialism” and sent to concentration camps called gulags. 

THE US: THE HAPPY 20’S. 

- Consequences of WWI in the US. The US took advantage of the war. During the war they sold weapons, food and industrial goods to the allies, this made possible than the country became the most important economic power in the world. Moreover, when the war finished a lot of countries had to pay back the money that they had borrowed from the US. So the US became not only an industrial power, but also an economic one. 

- The happy years in the US. The situation when the war finished was perfect for the US. The 20’s was a decade of prosperity. The “American way of life” was created. America was a paradise for emigrants from all around the world. This growth was also possible due to the changes introduced by the Americans in the system of production: .- New ways of producing when Ford’s ideas about production were assumed. .- Since the workers earned more money they could spent more money, so more goods had to be produced. This economic growth affected the stock market. The economy seemed to be ok so everybody wanted to buy shares ( participations in companies).The prices of this shares went up. But the prices of the shares weren’t going up because the companies were going better but because of the people wanting to buy them. People bought shares only to sell them in a few days. ( In a few days the price had gone up). Some people even took out loans to buy shares. 

- Overproduction crisis. Things seemed to be ok but not everybody had such a good situation. Agricultural producers were the first who had troubles. During the First World War they had taken out loans to buy more land and new machinery. They needed to increase production to satisfy the needs of the countries that were fighting the war. When the war finished exports decreased. All the manufactured goods could not be sold in the American market. The consequence: the stocks accumulated and the prices went down. The agricultural workers couldn’t pay their loans and they had to sell their land and move to the cities. In factories the process was similar, American factories produced too much for the market. The factories, tried to sell their stocks by reducing the prices, but a lot of them went bankrupt. Unemployment increased and these unemployed people couldn’t buy anything, so there were less people to buy the goods produced.... and the stocks continued growing.... 

FASCISM IN ITALY. 

- Italy after the First World War. Italy suffered during the First World War, and, at the end of the war Italy was in the “winner team”. However, the peace agreements were a disappointment for Italy. Italy got Trieste, Istria and Trentino alto Adige but they couldn’t get Dalmacia and Fiume. So the idea of a “mutilated victory” spread all around the country. Moreover, Italy was living a situation dominated by politic instability. Between 1919 and 1922 5 governments tried to rule a country suffering constant strikes of the proletarians in the North. ( They even occupied factories and lands) All these movements were stopped, but the conservative sectors were afraid of a revolution “Russian Style”.

 The Fascism. During this situation Benito Mussolini appeared. He created the Fasci di combatimento also known as the Black Shirts. Their objective: stopping the revolution by attacking the trade unions and their leaders. In 1921 the Fasci di combatimento became a political party: The Fascist Party. Their ideas: Create a strong state in Italy, able to guarantee private property. Their ideas also focused on building an empire, a new Roman Empire was the aim. This party was supported by the bourgeoisie and funded by the rich land owners. The Catholic Church also thought that they could stop communism in Italy. ( remember... communism was atheistic). In 1922 the Fascist Party only got 22 representatives ( in a parliament of 500) but the party showed its strength by stopping a general strike promoted by Socialist and Anarchist trade unions. Mussolini demanded the power from the king and, to show his power, organized a military parade towards Rome. The king, finally, gave the power to Mussolini. 

- Fascist dictatorship. Until 1925 Mussolini eliminated his opponents, but tried to pretend that Italy was a democracy. After the elections in 1924, won by the Fascist Party, he turned the country into a dictatorship. The Fascist Party and the State became the same thing, Mussolini had all the powers. He was called the Duce. All the political parties were forbidden, their leaders sent to jail. A new parliament ( non democratic) : Camera dei Fasci was introduced. All the trade unions, and strikes were forbidden too. The Party controlled everything, from economy to mass media. Private companies that supported the Party got grants and contracts from the government.

UNIT 7 AND 8 THE SPANISH CIVIL WAR

THE SPANISH CIVIL WAR.

From the coup to the Civil War.

On 17th July 1936, and beginning in Melilla, Tetuán and Ceuta, an important group of military men started a coup d’état. The falangists and traditionalists joined them.

They controlled the institutions in some cities and established a military government in order to “ restore the order” and eliminate the government of the Frente Popular.

The legal government didn't move as fast as the situation needed and in a couple of days the rebels controlled the Canary Islands, the North of Africa ,Seville and zones in Castilla-Leon and Aragón.

The 19th the new Prime Minister Jose Giral gave weapons to the militias organized by the trade unions and the political parties in the Frente Popular.

The idea was to stop the rebels and defend the Republic and its laws.

An important group in the army remained loyal to the Republic, so the uprising was stopped in Madrid, Catalonia, Asturias, Santander, Extremadura and Andalusia.

However, Spain was divided into two halves, the Civil War was about to start.

The conflict becomes international.

 In 1936 the political situation in Europe was explosive after the arriving of the Fascism in Germany and Italy. The Spanish Civil War got an enormous international importance.

Some people considered the war as a fight between Fascism and Democracy. Even, for some authors, Spain is considered the first movement of the fight that would come later during the Second World War.

The rebels got the aid from Italy (troops), Germany. ( Air force (Legión Cóndor, artillery, tanks...) and Portugal ( Less important).

France and the UK decided not to avoid any participation in the war. They remained neutral during the war ( Non intervention).

This situation made worse the situation for the Republic: France closed its border with Spain, and Great Britain stopped all the commerce with the Republic. So the Soviet Union became the only support for the Republic, sending weapons and military assessors.

Moreover the Republic received the help from the voluntaries of the International Brigades. People from all around the world came to Spain to fight against Fascism. They had an important role during the defense of Madrid.

UNIT 7 AND 8 PRIMO DE RIVERA´S DICTATORSHIP

 Primo de Rivera was supported by the king and the conservative parties. After the coup he started a dictatorship inspired by Italian Fascism.

The justification for the dictatorship was also similar to the one used in Italy: The politic system couldn´t guarantee the order and avoid a revolution.

Primo dissolved the parliament and finished all the institutions in Catalonia ( La Mancomunidad). The press was also controlled by means of censoring.

The dictatorship took advantage of the good economic situation ( The happy 20’s) and the victories in Morocco. The landing in Alhucemas. However, after 1929 the crisis reached Spain, and the situation for Primo the Rivera deteriorated.

In 1930 Primo de Rivera resigned and the king appointed General Berenger. He should prepare an election in 1931 that would return Spain to constitutional legislation.

UNIT 7 AND 8 THE TRANSITION

 6.- THE END OF FRANCO.

6.1.- ECONOMIC CRISIS IN 70’S.

From 1973 the western world is going to suffer an economic crisis created by the changes in the price of raw materials. Especially oil. This crisis stopped the economic growth that Europe had enjoyed from the 50’s.

In Spain this crisis stroke industry and tourism, a lot of companies went bankrupt and unemployment rose.

Thus from 1975 the Spanish economy stopped, inflation reached 26% and unemployment continued rising.

During this difficult situation Spain faced the changes created by the death of Franco in 1975.

6.2.- The last years of Francoism.

In 1973 Franco, ill, appointed Carrero Blanco as prime minister. However he was assassinated by ETA. The person who had to continue with the regime was death.

Franco’s followers divided into 2 wings:

a.- “ Inmovilistas”: Continue with Francoism even after the death of Franco himself.

b.- “ Aperturistas”: They wanted changes, but these changes had to be limited.

  In 1974 the new prime minister, Arias Navarro, promised political changes, but these were minimal changes and both wings were unsatisfied.

The people who fought against Francoism started demanding democracy, free elections  and an amnesty for all the political prisoners. The demonstrations  occupied the streets.

This was the situation when Franco died 20^th November 1975.

6.3.- The Transition.

Two days after the death of Franco, Juan Carlos I started his government as the king of Spain. The prime minister Arias Navarro, couldn’t make all the changes demanded so the king forced him to resign.

In 1976 Adolfo Suarez was appointed as prime minister, he started the changes to demolish Francoism.

The government tried to make these changes with the agreement of all the political parties.

In 1976 the Political Reform Act was passed, the parliament became democratic and the following year all the political parties were legalized. An amnesty was also passed.

In 1977 Spain celebrated its first democratic election since the Civil War.

3.- CRISIS IN THE GOVERMENT OF UCD.

3.1.- SUAREZ’S SECOND CABINET.

After the elections in 1979 UCD and Adolfo Suarez got the power again. However the Socialists ruled in the biggest cities.

This second cabinet leaded by Suarez faced a lot of problems: Economic problems, unemployment, inflation, terrorism ( ETA and GRAPO)  and even the confrontation between different groups inside UCD.

3.2 Enemies of democracy.

Democracy in Spain was attacked by extremist groups ( Both leftwing and rightwing).

Terrorism became a real problem for Spain: ETA ( whose aim was the independence for the Basque Country), GRAPO and FRAP ( That fought against capitalism and didn’t accept the Constitution) and also the Right, with groups that wanted Franco’s system back.

The terrorist attacks rose and the population couldn’t feel safe. Moreover the idea of a crisis in the ruling party UCD spread.... the possibility of a coup d’état was real. This coup would be boosted by radical right.

3.3.- The coup on 23^rd February 1981.

As Suarez lost support from his own party the Socialists made a vote of no confidence: the new president would be Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo.

But on 23^rd February 1981 Coronel Tejero, commanding a group of men of the Guardia Civil, occupied the parliament, and hijacked the members of parliament and the members of the government.

In Valencia, Milans del Bosch occupied the city with tanks and established the state of war.

The aim of this military men was to control the democracy, stopping the autonomies and  changing the Constitution.

The coup failed due to:

              .- The king Juan Carlos I whose speech moved the army to continue loyal to the Constitution.

              .- All the political parties moved together against the coup.

UNIT 9 IIWW

 https://youtu.be/ug_MHSdR-c4?si=2LSUSrLr4-uMNyOh

UNIT 9 HIROSHIMA DROPPING THE BOMB

 https://youtu.be/3wxWNAM8Cso?si=Dcvtwh84dBOctrN5